Santalum haleakalae var. haleakalae & var. lanaiense
Santalaceae or Sandalwood family
Synonyms for var. haleakalae: Santalum haleakalae
Synonyms for var. lanaiense: Santalum freycinetianum var. auwahiense, Santalum freycinetianum var. lanaiense, Santalum lanaiense
ʻIliahi
ʻAʻahi, ʻAoa, Lāʻau ʻala, Wahie ʻala
Haleakalā ‘iliahi, Haleakalā sandalwood
Lānaʻi forest sandalwood, Lānaʻi sandalwood
Natural Range & Environment
In the Hawaiian Islands, endemic to Maui. Restricted to a single volcano, Haleakala on East Maui.
Subalpine and montane mesic forest plant communities
1800-2700 m
In the Hawaiian Islands, endemic to Moloka`i, Lana`i, Maui.
Exposed or semishaded scrublands
endangered
Historically, this species was found in much drier habitats than presently found, which are from mesic sometimes to wet forests. Much of its habitat is degraded or destroyed by ungulate grazing and browsing. Currently, they are found in a wide range of habitats and very scattered throughout their range. [4]
On Lānaʻi two populations with few trees are found at Kānaepuʻu and Lānaʻihale. Due to rats few seedlings are known. [1]
At Auwahi, East Maui there are from 100 to 200 plants. [3] Plants also occurs of leeward West Maui in inaccessble to goats at between 3000 to 4500 feet. [4]
Santalum
It
Description
Leaves are somewhat round and very similar to some ʻiliahialoʻe (Santalum ellipticum) on Oʻahu. [2] Leaves are olive green often purple tinged. They range between 1 and 7 inches long.
Flowers are mildly fragrant. [Ethan Romanchak, Native Nursery, LLC] The dark yellowish brown wood is very fragrant. [2]
Flowering is sporadic but mostly blooms in summer. Dark purple fruits (drupes) hang from tree for a few weeks at maturity. [Ethan Romanchak, Native Nursery, LLC]
Dark green nearly round to twice as long as broad leaves on the upper surface; lighter green underneath. [4]
The plants were orginally described as having the largest leaves in the genus..."almost worthy of specific distinction." [4] George Munro describes var. lanaiense "with exceptionally large leaves... peculiar to Lānaʻi." [1]
New leaves are gorgeous with hues of pink, magenta, and orange.
The blooming period is variable, but usually late summer or fall, flowering frequently but fruiting occasionally. [4]
Santalum paniculatum is a shrub to large tree up to 20 m (66 ft) tall with a decades-long lifespan. Like all Santalum, S. paniculatum is a hemiparasite with specialized root structures called haustoria that penetrate and extract water and nutrients from nearby plants, normally without killing these host plants [Wagner et al. 1990]. Also like other Santalum, the heartwood of S. paniculatum contains ɑ-santalol and β-santalol, volatile chemicals that prevent oxidative damage and are thought to be antimicrobial and an insect antifeedant [Champion 2025]. The bark of S. paniculatum is gray, sometimes with a brownish tint, and can become rough and deeply furrowed on large trees. S. paniculatum, like other ‘iliahi, can produce root suckers and is capable of growing back after its above-ground parts have died (e.g., in a wildfire).
Santalum paniculatum has simple egg-shaped, elliptic, or oval leaves about 2 inches (5 cm) long. New leaves are sometimes red, purple, or bluish before maturing. While most plants have leaves that are green when mature, some have unusual golden foliage (see photograph above). Stemmermann [1980] states that these golden leaves are caused by the accumulation of "presumably tannins," and these plants grow "in exposed areas where there is little to no shade." However, this doesn't explain why other plants growing in full sunlight do not develop this golden foliage. Rather, I think it's more likely these plants are experiencing some type of nutrient deficiency.
Santalum paniculatum produces clusters of small perfect (bisexual) 4-petaled flowers that often have a sweet fragrance. The flowers are greenish yellow, often with brown or orange highlights. According to Merlin et al. [2005], trees flower and fruit throughout the year, usually with two annual peaks. Pollinated flowers develop into dark purple to nearly black drupes (fleshy fruits with a single seed) when ripe and have a prominent ring at their apex. Birds and rats are attracted to the fruits. Therefore, if you wish to harvest seeds, you should pick the fruits as soon as they turn color, or, better yet, protect the still-green fruits with a metal mesh bag until they ripen. Do not harvest still-green fruits because the seeds inside will not (normally) germinate.
Growth Requirements
General
Screening
Specimen Plant
Haleakalā ʻiliahi will grow in a medium to high elevation landscape. Keep host plant fertilized and vigorous. A suggested host plant is kuluʻī because it prunes well and thus will not out compete and shade the young ʻiliahi. Too, kuluʻī has a good root system for the hemiparistic nature of ʻiliahi. [Ethan Romanchak, Native Nursery, LLC]
Medium watering. [Ethan Romanchak, Native Nursery, LLC]
Full sun
Tolerances
Drought
Soils
Cinder
Organic
Limitations
If bees are a concern, this tree attracts them when blooming. This species does best above 2500 foot elevation. [Ethan Romanchak, Native Nursery, LLC]
I (Koebele) have never grown Santalum paniculatum (although I’ve often been tempted to buy a seedling from Hui Ku Maoli Ola). In contrast, many researchers and native Hawaiian plant enthusiasts on Hawai‘i Island have! Therefore, I have taken some liberty here and tried to summarize the current horticultural knowledge and research regarding S. paniculatum. I have also included my relevant experiences with other ‘iliahi species as well as some personal recommendations. I apologize for any failure to properly acknowledge everyone doing (or having done) this incredible research. While I cite specific products (e.g., fertilizers) in the summary below, this is not an endorsement of these products or the companies that make or sell them. Instead, these details are included to more accurately summarize the results of these studies.
Pests and Diseases
ʻIliahi seem to resist most pest attacks but may infrequently become infested by scale insects or whiteflies. Occasionally, insects such as cockroaches and sowbugs will chew on the stem/trunk at ground level. Snails and slugs too may also feed on and potentially girdle seedlings. Rats and mice are notorious for climbing up into trees and eating the seeds, often before the fruits ripen. Refer to the Pests & Diseases page for ways to protect your ʻiliahi seedling and deal with these pests.
Uses
Ancient Hawaiian
The fragrant heartwood of ʻiliahi was pounded into a fine powder and then re-pounded into newly-made kapa to mask its bad odor or mixed with coconut oil when waterproofing the kapa [Krauss 1972; Kepler 1985]. The wood was also sometimes fashioned into an ʻūkēkē (musical bow) [Buck 1964] or used as firewood [Wagner 1986]. The wood was favored for making the pola, the platform on a double-hulled canoe [Holmes 1981]. For dandruff and head lice, Hawaiians made a shampoo containing an infusion of ‘iliahi leaves [Krauss 1972]. Ripe ‘iliahi fruits were used to dye kapa during its beating [Kamakau 1976].
According to Ka‘aiakamanu & Akina [1922], to treat some venereal diseases, ‘awa (Piper methysticum) was combined with wood shavings of ‘iliahi, nīoi (Eugenia reinwardtiana), ‘ahakea (Bobea spp.), and kauila (cf. Alphitonia ponderosa). And, to heal severe sores, ‘iliahi, manena (Melicope hawaiensis), and ‘ahakea shavings were combined with ‘awa and ‘ōhi‘a ‘ai bark (Syzygium malaccense). Unfortunately, with so many other plant ingredients, it is difficult (impossible?) to verify that ‘iliahi was the active ingredient in these treatments.
Modern
ʻIIiahi and ʻiIiahialoʻe flowers, leaf-buds, and leaves are used in lei [McDonald & Weissich 2003], a likely ancient but unrecorded practice. The fragrant wood is valued for carving chests and other decorative boxes, furniture, and religious statues. The oil from the heartwood is used for cosmetics, perfumery, scented soaps, aromatherapy, and medicinal purposes [Merlin et al. 2005]. As in ancient times, ripe ‘iliahi fruits are occasionally used as a dye [photos and video from Laulima Nature Center].
An unusual ‘iliahi and lichen lei (photograph courtesy of J.B. Friday ©).
There is a small local commercial market for Hawaiian sandwood oils (photograph courtesy of J.B. Friday ©).
Special Features and Information
General
Santalaceae consists of about 1,000 species of trees, shrubs, perennial herbs, and epiphytic climbers within about 43 genera with a worldwide distribution. All members are either holoparasites (completely dependent on their host(s)) or hemiparasites (partially dependent on their host(s)) [WikipediA; Santalaceae].
Native Hawaiian species of Santalaceae currently (2026) include three endemic species of Exocarpos (heau or au with hulumoa and kaumahana for one species), six endemic species of Korthalsella (hulumoa or kaumahana), and six endemic species of Santalum [Flora of the Hawaiian Islands]. All the Hawaiian Santalaceae are considered hemiparasites.
The endemic Hawaiian Santalum are currently divided into three groups: a red-flowered group, a yellow-flowered group, and the endangered Kaua‘i endemic Santalum involutum, which, based on genetic analysis, appears to be the result of an ancient hybridization between the red- and yellow-flowered groups [Harbaugh et al. 2010].
The red-flowered group currently [Flora of the Hawaiian Islands] consists of:
Santalum freycinetianum — a (primarily) mesic forest tree endemic to O‘ahu.
Santalum haleakalae — with the rare var. haleakalae limited to the higher elevations of Haleakalā, Maui, and the endangered var. lanaiense found at lower elevations on Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, and Maui.
Santalum pyrularium — a small (primarily) mesic forest tree endemic to Kaua‘i.
The yellow-flowered group currently [Flora of the Hawaiian Islands] consists of:
Santalum ellipticum — a shrub to tree endemic to Laysan Island and all the main Hawaiian Islands. However, it is extinct on Kaho‘olawe and Laysan except for recent reintroduction plantings.
Santalum paniculatum — with both var. paniculatum and var. pilgeri endemic to Hawai‘i Island.
Champion [2025] found that S. freycinetianum, S. haleakalae, and S. pyrularium all appear to have contributed trace levels of their genomes to each other as well as to S. ellipticum, and only S. paniculatum does not share a genetic mix with the red-flowered species. He hypothesizes that much of this gene sharing is the result of the widespread S. ellipticum occasionally hybridizing with the above-mentioned red-flowered species. He also found S. paniculatum does not have a distinct genotype but rather shares much of its genotype with S. ellipticum despite the morphological differences between the two species.
Since the introduction of Indian sandalwood (Santalum album) in the 1930s to Hawai‘i [Merlin & VanRavenswaay 1990], there have been numerous anecdotal reports of S. album hybridizing with S. ellipticum. This hybridization, along with the intragenera hybridization described above, makes S. album a potential genetic threat to all the endemic Hawaiian ‘iliahi [Champion 2025].
The Hawaiian Sandalwood Trade
(Our paraphrased summary of a more detailed account by Merlin & VanRavenswaay [1990].)
As with the other Hawaiian sandalwoods, Santalum paniculatum was harvested during the sandalwood trade in Hawai‘i. The trade was fueled by greedy merchants in America, China, and Hawai‘i, as well as the Hawaiian monarchy.
In the late 1700s, due to China's (as well as a few other countries) insatiable demand for sandalwood, the white sandalwood (Santalum album), imported from India, was becoming scarcer and scarcer because of over-harvesting. With fewer imports from India, and with the aid of American fur traders, China turned its attention to Hawai‘i's endemic sandalwoods.
From the 1790s to the mid-1830s, ʻiliahi populations were devastated while the Hawaiian people who harvested the wood experienced incredible hardships. Thousands of Hawaiians, ordered by their aliʻi under Kamehameha I (the Great), left their homes and lo‘i (terrace gardens) to work upland cutting down and transporting sandalwood, which they carried on their backs. Many of these makaʻāinana (commoners) died from exposure to the cold, exhaustion, malnutrition, or disease. And, with no one in the lo‘i growing food, Hawaiʻi suffered one of the worst famines in its history. Ali‘i, who initially profited from the harvested sandalwood, were soon in debt, exploited by foreign traders selling them exotic goods at vastly inflated prices. Meanwhile, in China, the Chinese began calling the Hawaiian Islands Tang Heung Shan, or the "Sandalwood Mountains."
By the mid-1830s, the sandalwood supply was nearly exhausted in Hawai‘i, and the remaining inferior wood was driving demand and prices down. It was around this time, or perhaps somewhat later, that merchants tried to sell naio (Myoporum sandwicense), which also has a fragrant wood, as genuine sandalwood for a second time with little success; there is a report of one unsuccessful attempt to sell naio to the Chinese around 1790. From this trade, naio acquired the sorry nickname "bastard sandalwood."
In 1839, King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) finally placed a kapu (royal permission was required to harvest) on the remaining ʻiliahi, reserving two-thirds of it for himself. And by 1840, the Hawaiian sandalwood trade was over.
Fortunately, the Hawaiian people, the land, and the ʻiliahi have survived, but not without consequences. While not nearly as common as in the past, wild ʻiliahi can still be seen relatively easily in their native habitat; however, very large trees are still difficult to find.
Hawaiian Name
There is some debate as to whether ‘Iliahi is an ancient or historical (post-1778) Hawaiian name. Merlin & VanRavenswaay [1990] claim the name ‘Iliahi "refers to the reddish color of new leaves, or the trees in general when they are in full bloom," and that, according to Hillebrand & Hillebrand [1888], page 389, the linguistic origin of the word might be found "...in the Tahitian Eai and probably also in the Vitian [Fijian] Yasi." Others [Ua Hawai‘i] claim that ‘Iliahi is a compound word, composed of the word, ‘Ili, meaning “skin,” and Ahi, meaning “fire” [Pukui & Elbert 1986], created early in the Hawai‘i sandalwood trade period (1790s to the mid-1830s; see previous section). During this period, commoners were forced to hike up into the mountains to harvest sandalwood and then carry the cut wood down to ships on their backs, causing the skin on their backs to redden, bleed, and eventually callus, hence the name "fire skin" or "skin on fire." One supporting piece of evidence for this historical origin hypothesis is that the Kumulipo (an ancient Hawaiian creation chant) does not contain the word ‘Iliahi but instead refers to sandalwood as Aoa [Ulukau]. Hopefully, a Hawaiian linguist can ultimately resolve this issue.
ʻAʻahi is another name for ‘iliahi or possibly the name for a young ‘iliahi [Ulukau]. Lāʻau ʻala translates as "fragrant wood," while Wahie ʻala translates as "fragrant firewood" [Pukui & Elbert. 1986].
Etymology
Santalum comes from the Greek word santalon, which in turn is from the Arabic word sandal or Persian word shandul for the Indian sandalwood [Florabase; Gledhill 2008].
The specific epithet haleakalae is named for Haleakalā, Maui where this species is found.
The varietal name lanaiense is named after the island of Lānaʻi.
Additional References
[1] "Plants in Hawaiian Culture" by Beatrice H. Krauss, page 70.
[2] "The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands" by J.F. Rock, page 135.
[3] "Distribution and Status of Sandalwood i Hawaiʻi" by Lani Stemmermann. Presented at the Symposium on Sandalwood of the Pacific, April 9-11, 1990, Honolulu, Hawaii.
[4] "Nā Lei Makamae--The Treasured Lei" by Marie A. McDonald & Paul R. Weissich, pages XIV-XV, 28.
[5] "Part II--Species Descriptions Santalum freycinetianum Gaudich." by James A. Allen, Paul Smiths College, Paul Smiths, NY, pages 705-706.
[6] "A Hawaiian King Visits Hong Kong, 1881," Tin-Yuke Char, page 93; http://209.85.173.132/search?q=cache:ezbdf7pOkv4J:sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/44/4401330.pdf+Sandalwood+Mountains+Tan+Heng+San&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us&client=firefox-a [accessed 12/15/08]
[7] "The History of Human Impact on the Genus Santalum in Hawaiʻi" by Mark Merlin and Dan VanRavenswaay. Presented at the Symposium on Sandalwood of the Pacific, April 9-11, 1990, Honolulu, Hawaii.
[8] "Taxonomic Revsion of the Endangered Hawaiian Red-Flowered Sandalwoods (Santalum) and Discovery of an Ancient Hybrid Species" by Danica T. Harbaugh et.al., pages 833-838.
Additional References
[1] "The Strory of Lānaʻi" by George C. Munro, pages 72, 214, 215.
[2] "Plants in Hawaiian Culture" by Beatrice H. Krauss, page 70.
[3] "Auwahi: Ethnobotany of a Hawaiian Dryland Forest" by Medeiros, A.C., C.F. Davenport & C.G. Chimera, page 26.
[4] "Recovery Plan for the Lanai Plant Cluster" by theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, pages 24, 25, 30, 32, 34, 46, 48.
[5] "Distribution and Status of Sandalwood i Hawaiʻi" by Lani Stemmermann. Presented at the Symposium on Sandalwood of the Pacific, April 9-11, 1990, Honolulu, Hawaii.
[6] "A Hawaiian King Visits Hong Kong, 1881," Tin-Yuke Char, page 93; http://209.85.173.132/search?q=cache:ezbdf7pOkv4J:sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/44/4401330.pdf+Sandalwood+Mountains+Tan+Heng+San&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us&client=firefox-a [accessed 12/15/08]
[7] "The History of Human Impact on the Genus Santalum in Hawaiʻi" by Mark Merlin and Dan VanRavenswaay. Presented at the Symposium on Sandalwood of the Pacific, April 9-11, 1990, Honolulu, Hawaii.
[8] "Taxonomic Revsion of the Endangered Hawaiian Red-Flowered Sandalwoods (Santalum) and Discovery of an Ancient Hybrid Species" by Danica T. Harbaugh et.al., pages 833-838.
[9] "Nā Lei Makamae--The Treasured Lei" by Marie A. McDonald & Paul R. Weissich, pages XIV-XV, 28.
[10] "Auwahi: Ethnobotany of a Hawaiian Dryland Forest" by A.C. Medeiros, C.F. Davenport & C.G. Chimera, page 26.
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