Native Plants of Hawai‘i - Alyxia stellata

Alyxia stellata

Apocynaceae or Dogbane family

Synonyms: Alyxia myrtillifolia, Alyxia oliviformis, Alyxia oliviformis f. ampla, Alyxia oliviformis f. angusta, Alyxia oliviformis f. cuneata, Alyxia oliviformis f. elliptica, Alyxia oliviformis f. fusiformis, Alyxia oliviformis f. lanceolata, Alyxia oliviformis var. lanceolata, Alyxia oliviformis f. linearis, Alyxia oliviformis f. myrtillifolia, Alyxia oliviformis var. myrtillifolia, Alyxia oliviformis f. obovata, Alyxia oliviformis f. ovata, Alyxia oliviformis var. ovata, Alyxia oliviformis f. retusa, Alyxia oliviformis f. rotundata, Alyxia oliviformis f. subacuta, Alyxia stellata var. deckeri, Alyxia stellata var. fatuhivensis, Alyxia stellata f. marquesensis, Alyxia stellata var. marquesensis, Alyxia sulcata, Gynopogon olivaeformis, Gynopogon olivaeformis var. ovata, Gynopogon stellatum

Maile

Natural Range & Environment

For a long time, maile was considered to be endemic to the Hawaiian Islands with the species name Alyxia oliviformis. However, Middleton [2002] revised all the Alyxia species of the Pacific Islands and Australia. In his revision, he merged the Hawaiian Alyxia (i.e., Alyxia oliviformis) with the more widespread species Alyxia stellata because he felt the few morphological differences did not merit separate species classification. Because Middleton's revision is relatively new, there is still conflicting or confusing online literature regarding the distribution of Alyxia stellata. Therefore, for now (2026), we will simply follow the accounts from Flora of the Hawaiian Islands, Middleton [2002], and Wagner et al. [1990], regarding the distribution and habitat of Alyxia stellata.

Alyxia stellata has a widespread geographic range that includes Australia and the Pacific Islands from the Solomon and Caroline Islands in the west to Henderson Island in the east and the Austral Islands in the south to the Hawaiian Islands in the north [Middleton 2002]. In Hawai‘i, it is today indigenous to all the main Hawaiian Islands except Niʻihau and Kahoʻolawe [Flora of the Hawaiian Islands]. Wagner et al. [1990] state that there are no records of maile from Niʻihau or Kahoʻolawe but that both islands probably had populations in the past; Flora of the Hawaiian Islands considers it extinct on these two islands. In Hawai‘i, Alyxia stellata is occasional to common in most vegetation types (i.e., dry open sites to wet and dense closed-canopy forests) from 50 to 2,000 m (164 to 6,562 ft) [Wagner et al. 1990].

Maile has tiny pinwheel flowers (photograph courtesy of Forest & Kim Starr CC BY 3.0). Its ripe fruits look (but do not taste) like black olives. While the flowers and fruits of maile are relatively consistent morphological features of the species, both the size and shape of its leaves as well as its growth form can vary dramatically from place to place. Here are just a few examples. A shrubby maile. A viny maile (photograph courtesy of Forest & Kim Starr CC BY 3.0). A maile with an unusual leaf form from Lihau, Maui (photograph courtesy of Forest & Kim Starr CC BY 3.0). A cultivated maile climbing on a trellis.

Description

In the past, several botanists have divided Alyxia stellata into separate species, varieties, and forma (see the many synonyms listed above). However, today (2026), while some of these divisions are informally used, Alyxia stellata is considered a single morphologically diverse species (see discussion in Natural Range & Environment above).

Alyxia stellata has a lifespan exceeding five years. Depending on where it is found in Hawai‘i, it can be a twining liana or a climbing, sprawling, or erect (non-climbing) shrub. While some forms may climb high into the forest canopy or cover surrounding vegetation, maile is generally considered non-invasive because of its slow growth. All parts (i.e., stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits) of the plant have a milky sap that contains coumarin, which gives maile its pleasant vanilla-like fragrance when crushed or otherwise damaged. However, the amount of coumarin within a plant, and therefore, the strength of its fragrance, can vary with the plant's geography, climate, and habitat (e.g., soil type).

As with form, the leaves of maile can vary dramatically with its geography and habitat (see photographs above). Its stems can have two, three, or four simple leaves per node. And, while all maile leaves are glabrous (hairless) with an upper glossy surface and a paler lower surface, they can vary in both size (less than an inch [2.5 cm] to a bit more than 2.5 inches [6.4 cm] long) and shape (elliptical to lance-like).

Flowers and fruits are the least variable features of maile. The small perfect (bisexual) pinwheel-like flowers are tubular with (normally) five lobes. They can be greenish-white, yellow, orange, or a combination of these colors. The flowers develop in small clusters and somewhat resemble smaller versions of hōlei (Ochrosia spp.) flowers; hōlei is also in the Dogbane family. Blooming is most common in fall and winter. Each pollinated flower typically develops into a single-seeded fruit (drupe) that resembles a small black olive when ripe (see photograph above). Infrequently, a chainlike fruit with two or more seeds will form. The brown elliptical seed is only slightly smaller than its surrounding fruit and has multiple furrows [Seeds of Hawai‘i].

Growth Requirements

General

Alyxia stellata is best displayed as an accent beneath one or two trees that will provide it with partial shade and something to climb on. Choosing a native tree(s) will help make your landscape look more like a slice of native forest. Alternatively, pair your maile with a chain-link fence or trellis to create a screen (see photograph above). If your aim is to grow maile for lei material, you'll need to plant several, and because maile initially grows slowly, wait a few years before your first harvest. You can also grow maile to maturity in a container.

Some forms of dryland maile can survive long periods of full sunlight; however, most forms, particularly those found in forests, will grow best if placed in a site with filtered sunlight (i.e., light to medium shade). Most forms of maile require regular watering (or rainfall) such that the subsurface soil remains moist at all times; surface soil can be dry or moist. We have grown maile in a variety of soils, including coralline, lava/cinder, clay, and organic-dominant. In all cases, the soil must drain water easily. For maile in a container, use a media mix with at least 25% black cinders or perlite to provide good drainage. For landscapes near the ocean, maile cannot tolerate salt spray and must be shielded.

Maile initially grows slowly and, even when mature, does not grow as fast as some native climbing vines like ʻānunu (Sicyos pachycarpus), āwikiwiki (Canavalia spp.), Bonamia menziesii, Gouania vitifolia, and nuku ‘i‘iwi (Strongylodon ruber). Expect mature plants to lengthen each of their branches by about a foot (30 cm) each year. Maile is also a relatively weak climber compared to the above-mentioned native plants. Therefore, to get it started, loosely attach one or two of its most adventurous branches to a tree, trellis, or fence with gardener's tape or string. While growth can be slow, fortunately, even small maile begin flowering and setting fruit around their second year of growth.

Maile in containers (and those in the ground to a lesser degree) should be fertilized with a balanced controlled-release fertilizer with minor elements every six months or have their leaves sprayed monthly with an organic or inorganic fertilizer diluted to ⅓ to ½ recommended strength. Prune maile by hand only when necessary to remove a dead or diseased branch. If harvested for lei, give your plant several months to recover (i.e., put out substantial new growth) before harvesting again.

Pests and Diseases

The most serious pest of maile is scale insects, usually farmed and protected by ants. Periodically inspect both the leaves and stems of your plant for this pest, as they are often difficult to see at a distance; some types of scale insects are quite flat and can match the color and gloss of the plant's leaves and stems. Refer to the Pests & Diseases page for ways to eliminate or control scale insects and ants.

Uses

Ancient Hawaiian

While maile had other uses (see below), its primary importance to Hawaiians in the past (and today) was/is as a material for lei. Three distinct leaf forms — maile lau nui (large-leaf), most common on Hawaiʻi Island; maile lau liʻi (small-leaf), most common on Oʻahu; and maile lau liʻiliʻi (very small leaf) from Kauaʻi — were generally considered the most desired forms for lei-making [Heckman 2001]. (See Hawaiian Name below for other named forms.) Marie Neal, in her book, In Gardens of Hawaii [1965], notes: "A Hawaiian wrote: 'Maile is used for leis for the people; for men, women, and children; for the chiefs, the noted people, and the rich people; for the farmer, the oppressed, the branded servant . . . and because it was so very much desired by the people, therefore it was greatly used in the composing of songs, hulas, chants, dirges, and various other compositions.'"

Pukui & Elbert [1986], in addition to defining maile as a "native twining shrub," also provide some additional meanings. These include (1) "maile sticks attached to the end of the ʻaukuʻu (pole) used for catching birds (the maile was gummed with lime, and birds perching on it were caught)"; (2) the "name of a snare used in catching plovers around the leg" (it's not clear if the snare was actually made of maile); (3) a "rod or wand (not made of maile) used in the games of pūhenehene and ʻume"; and (4) a "piece securing an ox's neck to the yoke" (again, it's not clear if the piece was actually made of maile). Buck [2024 reprint of 1957 book] provides a more thorough account of how a wooden wand, called a maile (but not made of maile), was used in games.

Similar to ʻiliahi (Santalum spp.) shavings, branches of maile were placed between the folds of stored kapa to perfume this barkcloth [Krauss 1993]. Maile was also combined with grated coconut to make a fragrant oil used for "anointing the body and hair and washing the hair" [Handy & Handy 1972].

Maile was one of the five standard plants placed on a kuahu (altar) within a hālau hula, a building for dancers and trainees and consecrated to Laka, goddess of hula and the forest. The maile represented the four Maile sisters, mythical sponsors of hula [Abbott 1992]. Degener [1973] describes how warring ali‘i (chiefs) would meet in a heiau and weave together a lei made of maile branches to establish an armistice.

Ka‘aiakamanu & Akina [1922] describe a treatment to remove yellow blotches on the skin using maile combined with Cassia occidentalis (syn: Senna occidentalis) and kukaepipi grass (unknown ID) that were pounded together, added to water, and then boiled to create a steam for a steam bath. The mention of Cassia occidentalis, a post-contact introduced plant, suggests this is not an ancient Hawaiian treatment unless the native Senna gaudichaudii was used pre-contact and Cassia occidentalis is either a substitution or misidentification.

Some online sources describe maile being used to treat cuts and other sores, as well as body odor. However, this is a misidentification since the plant used for these treatments is a Coprosma species called "MAILE-KALUHEA" in Ka‘aiakamanu & Akina [1922].

Modern

Today, as in the past, maile is used for lei worn at celebrations such as weddings and graduations and festivities like hula competitions. Most often, a maile lei is worn draped behind the neck and over one's shoulders and is open in front. Maile lei po‘o (head lei) are also common. Dancers will often wear kūpe'e made of maile around their wrists or ankles to draw attention to their movements. Maile lei remain fresh for one to four days [Ide 2002]; however, even an old maile lei will continue to emit a pleasant fragrance weeks after it has wilted.

Sometimes, large-leaf Alyxia stellata, grown outside Hawai‘i, is imported and sold as maile [Bornhorst 2005]. More often, the maile for lei is collected from our native forests, sometimes in a damaging and unsustainable manner. While maile is still a relatively common native plant, extensive harvesting by an ever-increasing population needs to be regulated (as it was in ancient times) or mitigated so that maile remains common. (Recently (2026), the Merrie Monarch Festival announced a three-year pause on the harvesting of wild maile and other lei plants for its annual hula competition in Hilo [Star-Advertiser 2026]). It is encouraging that more and more community groups, such as hālau hula, are teaching their members how to properly and responsibly harvest maile from our forests. Some of these groups are also starting lei gardens, where they can grow and harvest native lei plants without adversely impacting wild populations.

A recent study by Whitehead [2015] provides some evidence that harvesting may not be as great a threat to maile survival and sustainability as other factors such as the loss of frugivorous birds that remove the pulp from and disperse maile seeds and the introduction of seed-predators (e.g., rats and game birds); pulp removal significantly improved seed germination. Based on her results, Whitehead [2015] recommends an adaptive management and harvest strategy that includes cleaning and scattering maile seeds and eliminating seed predators in order to improve the long-term survival of maile and its sustainable harvesting.

Kumu Hula Hinaleimoana Wong wearing a maile lei during the 2013 Hawaiian Medal of Honor Ceremony at the State Building (photograph courtesy of Sgt. Daniel Schroeder Public Domain).

Special Features and Information

General

Apocynaceae is a large, diverse group of trees, shrubs, herbs, succulents, and vines with a worldwide tropical, subtropical, and temperate distribution. It is called the Dogbane family because some species members were used as dog poison. Its taxonomy has varied over the years; however, currently (2026) there are about 5,100 species within 376 genera [Wikipedia; Apocynaceae].

While there are about 120 species of Alyxia worldwide (i.e., in India, Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands) [WikipediA; Alyxia], Alyxia stellata is the only Alyxia species in Hawai‘i. In addition to A. stellata, there are seven other Apocynaceae native to Hawai‘i, all trees: four endemic species of hōlei (Ochrosia spp.), two endemic species of kaulu (Pteralyxia spp.), and the endemic hao (Rauvolfia sandwicensis) [Flora of the Hawaiian Islands].

Several non-native species of Plumeria, also in Apocynaceae and a popular ornamental tree, have been introduced to Hawai‘i. However, none of these have become naturalized (i.e., established and successfully reproducing in the wild) [Wagner et al. 1990].

Joel Lau, a local botanist, has found fossils of Alyxia stellata in solidified volcanic ash originating from a complex of volcanic vents in the land sections of Moanalua and Hālawa, Oʻahu, sites where maile no longer grows (see photograph).

Hawaiian Name

Hawaiians recognized the highly variable leaf forms of maile and gave some of these forms specific names, such as:

maile ha‘i wale — a form with small, round "brittle" leaves.
maile kaluhea — a "sweet-smelling" form.
maile lau li‘i — a "small-leaved" form with narrow, pointed leaves.
maile lau nui — a form with "big leaves."
maile pākaha — a form with "blunt" ovate leaves.

The five maile above were believed to be the plant forms (i.e., kinolau) of five sisters in Hawaiian mythology; some stories only mention four sisters, excluding maile kaluhea. Hawaiians also referred to maile seedlings with two or three leaves as maile kū honua [Pukui & Elbert 1986].

Alyxia stellata has a number of names outside Hawai‘i, such as Vono in Fiji and Lau maile in Samoa [Middleton 2002], with other sources listing additional names from other places [Whitehead 2015; Cook Islands Biodiversity and Ethnobiology Database]. Plants of Hawai‘i includes the names ‘Āhihi maile and Mairi for Alyxia stellata; however, it provides no source citation or explanation as to whether they consider these to be Hawaiian names.

Etymology

The origin of the genus name, Alyxia, is uncertain with several possibilities. These include (1) from the Greek word alyxis, meaning "anxiety" or "grief," referring to the plants' "gloomy" appearance or the "lonely" places they grow; (2) from the Greek word alyktos, meaning "to be shunned"; and (3) from the Greek word halysis, meaning "chain," referring to the fruits resembling a string of beads or the predominately Polynesian use of the plant to make lei [Whitehead 2015] (however, maile in Hawai‘i only rarely has chain-like fruits). The species name, stellata, is Latin and means "star-like" [Gledhill 2008], likely referring to the species' five-petalled flowers.

BPK